The energies of the rotational levels are given by Equation 7.6.5, E = J(J + 1)ℏ2 2I and each energy level has a degeneracy of 2J + 1 due to the different mJ values. A rigid, nonlinear molecule has rotational energy levels determined by three rotational constants, conventionally written ,, and , which can often be determined by rotational spectroscopy. The first term in the above nuclear wave function equation corresponds to kinetic energy of nuclei due to their radial motion. This definition is given depending on the theories of quantum physics, which states that angular momentum of a molecule is a quantized property and it can only equal certain discrete values that correspond to different rotational energy states. Finding the $$\Theta (\theta)$$ functions that are solutions to the $$\theta$$-equation (Equation $$\ref{5.8.18}$$) is a more complicated process. where the area element $$ds$$ is centered at $$\theta _0$$ and $$\varphi _0$$. David M. Hanson, Erica Harvey, Robert Sweeney, Theresa Julia Zielinski ("Quantum States of Atoms and Molecules"). Rotational energy levels – polyatomic molecules. In Fig. 44-4 we picture a diatomic molecule as a rigid dumbbell (two point masses m, and mz separated by a constant distance r~ that can rotate about axes through its center of mass, perpendicular to the line joining them. Rotational energy levels of a diatomic molecule Spectra of a diatomic molecule Moments of inertia for polyatomic molecules Polyatomic molecular rotational spectra Intensities of microwave spectra Sample Spectra Problems and quizzes Solutions Topic 2 Rotational energy levels of diatomic molecules A molecule rotating about an axis with an angular velocity C=O (carbon monoxide) is an example. The fixed distance between the two masses and the values of the masses are the only characteristics of the rigid model. Describe how the spacing between levels varies with increasing $$J$$. Hence, there exist $$(2J+1)$$ different wavefunctions with that energy. Polyatomic molecules. The range of the integral is only from $$0$$ to $$2π$$ because the angle $$\varphi$$ specifies the position of the internuclear axis relative to the x-axis of the coordinate system and angles greater than $$2π$$ do not specify additional new positions. Describe how the spacing between levels varies with increasing $$J$$. Carry out the steps leading from Equation $$\ref{5.8.15}$$ to Equation $$\ref{5.8.17}$$. Solutions are found to be a set of power series called Associated Legendre Functions (Table M2), which are power series of trigonometric functions, i.e., products and powers of sine and cosine functions. [ "article:topic", "rigid rotor", "cyclic boundary condition", "spherical harmonics", "showtoc:no", "license:ccbyncsa" ], 5.7: Hermite Polynomials are either Even or Odd Functions, 5.9: The Rigid Rotator is a Model for a Rotating Diatomic Molecule, Copenhagen interpretation of wavefunctions, information contact us at info@libretexts.org, status page at https://status.libretexts.org, $$\dfrac {1}{\sqrt {2 \pi}}e^{i \varphi}$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {3}{8 \pi}}\sin \theta e^{i \varphi}$$, $$\dfrac {1}{\sqrt {2 \pi}}e^{-i\varphi}$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {3}{8 \pi}}\sin \theta e^{-i \varphi}$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {5}{8}}(3\cos ^2 \theta - 1)$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {5}{16\pi}}(3\cos ^2 \theta - 1)$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {15}{4}} \sin \theta \cos \theta$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {15}{8\pi}} \sin \theta \cos \theta e^{i\varphi}$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {15}{8\pi}} \sin \theta \cos \theta e^{-i\varphi}$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {15}{16}} \sin ^2 \theta$$, $$\dfrac {1}{\sqrt {2 \pi}}e^{2i\varphi}$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {15}{32\pi}} \sin ^2 \theta e^{2i\varphi}$$, $$\sqrt {\dfrac {15}{32\pi}} \sin ^2 \theta e^{-2i\varphi}$$, Compare the classical and quantum rigid rotor in three dimensions, Demonstrate how to use the Separation of Variable technique to solve the 3D rigid rotor Schrödinger Equation, Identify and interpret the two quantum numbers for a 3D quantum rigid rotor including the range of allowed values, Describe the wavefunctions of the 3D quantum rigid rotor in terms of nodes, average displacements and most probable displacements, Describe the energies of the 3D quantum rigid rotor in terms of values and degeneracies, $$J=0$$: The lowest energy state has $$J = 0$$ and $$m_J = 0$$. Equation \ref{5.8.10} shows that the energy of the rigid rotor scales with increasing angular frequency (i.e., the faster is rotates) and with increasing moment of inertia (i.e, the inertial resistance to rotation). Hello members, I have a doubt. Polyatomic molecules may rotate about the x, y or z axes, or some combination of the three. For a diatomic molecule the energy difference between rotational levels (J to J+1) is given by: EJ + 1 − EJ = B(J + 1)(J + 2) − BJ(J = 1) = 2B(J + 1) with J=0, 1, 2,... Because the difference of energy between rotational levels is in the microwave region (1-10 cm -1) rotational spectroscopy is commonly called microwave spectroscopy. Substitute Equation $$\ref{5.8.22}$$ into Equation $$\ref{5.8.21}$$ to show that it is a solution to that differential equation. In other words $$m_J$$ can equal any positive or negative integer or zero. Transitions involving changes in both vibrational and rotational states can be abbreviated as rovibrational transitions. $E = \dfrac {\hbar^2}{I} = \dfrac {\hbar^2}{\mu r^2} \nonumber$, $\mu_{O2} = \dfrac{m_{O} m_{O}}{m_{O} + m_{O}} = \dfrac{(15.9994)(15.9994)}{15.9994 + 15.9994} = 7.9997 \nonumber$. Energy level transitions can also be nonradiative, meaning emission or absorption of a photon is not involved. For a nonlinear molecule the rotational energy levels are a function of three principal moments of inertia I A, I B and I C. These are moments of inertia around three mutually orthogonal axes that have their origin (or intersection) at the center of mass of the molecule. The $$\varphi$$-equation is similar to the Schrödinger Equation for the free particle. Show how Equations $$\ref{5.8.18}$$ and $$\ref{5.8.21}$$ are obtained from Equation $$\ref{5.8.17}$$. Some examples. $E = \dfrac {\hbar ^2 \lambda}{2I} = J(J + 1) \dfrac {\hbar ^2}{2I} \label {5.8.30}$. $$J$$ can be 0 or any positive integer greater than or equal to $$m_J$$. Values for $$m$$ are found by using a cyclic boundary condition. There are, $$J=2$$: The next energy level is for $$J = 2$$. This rotating molecule can be assumed to be a rigid rotor molecule. Construct a rotational energy level diagram including $$J = 0$$ through $$J=5$$. The $$\Theta (\theta)$$ functions, along with their normalization constants, are shown in the third column of Table $$\PageIndex{1}$$. That is, from J = 0 to J = 1, the ΔE0 → 1 is 2Bh and from J = 1 to J = 2, the ΔE1 → 2 is 4Bh. We also can substitute the symbol $$I$$ for the moment of inertia, $$\mu r^2_0$$ in the denominator of the left hand side of Equation $$\ref{5.8.13}$$, to give, $-\dfrac {\hbar ^2}{2I} \left [ \dfrac {1}{\sin \theta} \dfrac {\partial}{\partial \theta } \sin \theta \dfrac {\partial}{\partial \theta } + \dfrac {1}{\sin ^2 \theta} \dfrac {\partial ^2}{\partial \varphi ^2}\right ] | \Theta (\theta ) \Phi (\varphi) \rangle = E | \Theta (\theta) \Phi (\varphi) \rangle \label {5.8.14}$, To begin the process of the Separating of Variables technique, multiply each side of Equation $$\ref{5.8.14}$$ by $$\dfrac {2I}{\hbar ^2}$$ and $$\dfrac {-\sin ^2 \theta}{\Theta (\theta) \Phi (\varphi)}$$ to give, $\dfrac {1}{\Theta (\theta) \psi (\varphi)} \left [ \sin \theta \dfrac {\partial}{\partial \theta } \sin \theta \dfrac {\partial}{\partial \theta } + \dfrac {\partial ^2}{\partial \varphi ^2}\right ] \Theta (\theta ) \Phi (\varphi) = \dfrac {-2IE \sin ^2 \theta}{\hbar ^2} \label {5.8.15}$. The rotational energy levels of the molecule based on rigid rotor model can be expressed as, where is the rotational constant of the molecule and is related to the moment of inertia of the molecule I B = I C by, Selection rules dictate that during emission or absorption the rotational quantum number has to change by unity i.e. A caroussel of mass 1 tonn( 1000 kg)(evenly distributed to the disc) has a diameter 20m and rotates 10 times per minute. In this discussion we’ll concentrate mostly on diatomic molecules, to keep things as simple as possible. In spherical coordinates the area element used for integrating $$\theta$$ and $$\varphi$$ is, $ds = \sin \theta\, d \theta \,d \varphi \label {5.8.33}$. Physical Chemistry for the Life Sciences. Since $$V=0$$ then $$E_{tot} = T$$ and we can also say that: $T = \dfrac{1}{2}\sum{m_{i}v_{i}^2} \label{5.8.3}$. Rotational spectroscopy. The combination of Equations $$\ref{5.8.16}$$ and $$\ref{5.8.28}$$ reveals that the energy of this system is quantized. If a diatomic molecule is assumed to be rigid (i.e., internal vibrations are not considered) and composed of two atoms…. We can rewrite Equation $$\ref{5.8.3}$$ as, $T = \omega\dfrac{{I}\omega}{2} = \dfrac{1}{2}{I}\omega^2 \label{5.8.10}$. These functions are tabulated above for $$J = 0$$ through $$J = 2$$ and for $$J = 3$$ in the Spherical Harmonics Table (M4) Polar plots of some of the $$\theta$$-functions are shown in Figure $$\PageIndex{3}$$. Sketch this region as a shaded area on Figure $$\PageIndex{1}$$. …radiation can cause changes in rotational energy levels within molecules, making it useful for other purposes. and the rotational energy level E is given as: E=BJ(J+1); B= rotational constant. However, for many actual diatomics this model is too restrictive since distances are usually not completely fixed and corrections on the rigid model can be made to compensate for small variations in the distance. The rigid rotor is a mechanical model that is used to explain rotating systems. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. New York: W.H. Example $$\PageIndex{7}$$: Molecular Oxygen. Note that a double integral will be needed. Unless otherwise noted, LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Vibrational spectroscopy. Rotational spectroscopy is sometimes referred to as pure rotational spectroscop… Keep in mind that, if $$y$$ is not a function of $$x$$, $\dfrac {dy}{dx} = y \dfrac {d}{dx} \nonumber$, Equation $$\ref{5.8.17}$$ says that the function on the left, depending only on the variable $$\theta$$, always equals the function on the right, depending only on the variable $$\varphi$$, for all values of $$\theta$$ and $$\varphi$$. the functions do not change with respect to $$r$$. Looking at rotational energy separately around an object's axis of rotation, the following dependence on the object's moment of inertia is observed: To solve the Schrödinger equation for the rigid rotor, we will separate the variables and form single-variable equations that can be solved independently. This state has an energy $$E_0 = 0$$. Have questions or comments? The rotational kinetic energy is determined by the three moments-of-inertia in the principal axis system. Effect of anharmonicity. $\Phi_m(\varphi)= \mathrm{N} e^{\pm \mathrm{i} m_{J} \varphi} \nonumber$, $\frac{d^{2}}{d \varphi^{2}} \Phi(\varphi)+m_{J}^{2} \Phi(\varphi)=0 \nonumber$, \begin{aligned} For a determination of these molecular properties it is necessary to calculate the wave functions. \[E = 5.71 \times 10^{-27} \;Joules \nonumber. &\left.=\mathrm{N}\left(\pm \mathrm{i} m_{J}\right)^{2} e^{\pm i m_{J} \varphi}\right)+m_{J}^{2}\left(\mathrm{N} e^{\pm \mathrm{i} m_{J} \varphi}\right) \\ Often $$m_J$$ is referred to as just $$m$$ for convenience. where $$\omega$$ is the angular velocity, we can say that: Thus we can rewrite Equation $$\ref{5.8.3}$$ as: $T = \dfrac{1}{2}\sum{m_{i}v_{i}\left(\omega{X}r_{i}\right)} \label{5.8.6}$. Claculate the rotational energy levels and angular quantum number. The probability of finding the internuclear axis at specific coordinates $$\theta _0$$ and $$\varphi _0$$ within an infinitesimal area $$ds$$ on this curved surface is given by, $Pr \left [ \theta _0, \varphi _0 \right ] = Y^{m_{J*}}_J (\theta _0, \varphi _0) Y^{m_J}_J (\theta _0, \varphi _0) ds \label {5.8.32}$. \label {5.8.16}\]. Molecules can also undergo transitions in their vibrational or rotational energy levels. We need to evaluate Equation \ref{5.8.23} with $$\psi(\varphi)=N e^{\pm i m J \varphi}$$, \begin{align*} \psi^{*}(\varphi) \psi(\varphi) &= N e^{+i m J \varphi} N e^{-i m J \varphi} \\[4pt] &=N^{2} \\[4pt] 1=\int_{0}^{2 \pi} N^* N d \varphi=1 & \\[4pt] N^{2} (2 \pi) =1 \\[4pt] N=\sqrt{1 / 2 \pi} \end{align*}. Construct a rotational energy level diagram including $$J = 0$$ through $$J=5$$. The rotational spectra of non-polar molecules cannot be observed by those methods, but can be observed and measured by Raman spectroscopy. Label each level with the appropriate values for the quantum numbers $$J$$ and $$m_J$$. Using Equation $$\ref{5.8.30}$$, you can construct a rotational energy level diagram (Figure $$\PageIndex{2}$$). We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The relationship between the three moments of inertia, and hence the energy levels, depends … There is only, $$J=1$$: The next energy level is $$J = 1$$ with energy $$\dfrac {2\hbar ^2}{2I}$$. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. Label each level with the appropriate values for the quantum numbers $$J$$ and $$m_J$$. Energy level diagram of a diatomic molecule showing the n = 0and n = 1 vibrational energy levels and associated rotational states. Exercise $$\PageIndex{5}$$: Cyclic Boundary Conditions. Rigid rotor means when the distance between particles do not change as they rotate. This fact means the probability of finding the internuclear axis in this particular horizontal plane is 0 in contradiction to our classical picture of a rotating molecule. apart while the rotational levels have typical separations of 1 - 100 cm-1 ROTATIONAL ENERGY LEVELS. p. 515. Rotational energy levels. Equation $$\ref{5.8.29}$$ means that $$J$$ controls the allowed values of $$m_J$$. Energy levels for diatomic molecules. Normal modes of vibration. Knowledge of the rotational-vibrational structure, the corresponding energy levels, and their transition probabilities is essential for the understanding of the laser process. Considering the transition energy between two energy levels, the difference is a multiple of 2. They have moments of inertia Ix, Iy, Izassociated with each axis, and also corresponding rotational constants A, B and C [A = h/(8 2cIx), B = h/(8 2cIy), C = h/(8 2cIz)]. &=-\mathrm{N} m_{J}^{2} e^{\pm i m_{J} \varphi}+\mathrm{N} m_{J}^{2} e^{\pm i m_{J} \varphi}=0 Rotational–vibrational spectroscopy is a branch of molecular spectroscopy concerned with infrared and Raman spectra of molecules in the gas phase. $\Phi _{m_J} (\varphi) = \sqrt{\dfrac{1}{2\pi}} e^{\pm i m_J \varphi} \nonumber$. Schrödinger equation for vibrational motion. ROTATIONAL ENERGY LEVELS AND ROTATIONAL SPECTRA OF A DIATOMIC MOLECULE || RIGID ROTATOR MODEL || Pankaj Physics Gulati. For each state with $$J = 0$$ and $$J = 1$$, use the function form of the $$Y$$ spherical harmonics and Figure $$\PageIndex{1}$$ to determine the most probable orientation of the internuclear axis in a diatomic molecule, i.e., the most probable values for $$\theta$$ and $$\theta$$. Missed the LibreFest? The partial derivatives have been replaced by total derivatives because only a single variable is involved in each equation. In terms of these constants, the rotational partition function can be written in the high temperature limit as Use the normalization condition in Equation $$\ref{5.8.23}$$ to demonstrate that $$N = 1/\sqrt{2π}$$. Anderson, J.M. If an atom, ion, or molecule is at the lowest possible energy level, it … where we introduce the number $$m$$ to track how many wavelengths of the wavefunction occur around one rotation (similar to the wavelength description of the Bohr atom). Simplify the appearance of the right-hand side of Equation $$\ref{5.8.15}$$ by defining a parameter $$\lambda$$: $\lambda = \dfrac {2IE}{\hbar ^2}. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership - Now 30% off. https://www.britannica.com/science/rotational-energy-level, chemical analysis: Microwave absorptiometry. Watch the recordings here on Youtube! . Since $$\omega$$ is a scalar constant, we can rewrite Equation \ref{5.8.6} as: \[T = \dfrac{\omega}{2}\sum{m_{i}\left(v_{i}{X}r_{i}\right)} = \dfrac{\omega}{2}\sum{l_{i}} = \omega\dfrac{L}{2} \label{5.8.7}$. There are two quantum numbers that describe the quantum behavior of a rigid rotor in three-deminesions: $$J$$ is the total angular momentum quantum number and $$m_J$$ is the z-component of the angular momentum. Compare this information to the classical picture of a rotating object. Selection rules. The normalization condition, Equation $$\ref{5.8.23}$$ is used to find a value for $$N$$ that satisfies Equation $$\ref{5.8.22}$$. Well, i calculated the moment of inertia, I=mr^2; m is the mass of the object. Also, since the probability is independent of the angle $$\varphi$$, the internuclear axis can be found in any plane containing the z-axis with equal probability. The rigid rotor approximation greatly simplifys our discussion. The polar plot of $$( Y^0_1)^2$$ is shown in Figure $$\PageIndex{1}$$. The rotational energy levels within a molecule correspond to the different possible ways in which a portion of a molecule can revolve around the chemical bond that binds it to the remainder of the…, In the gas phase, molecules are relatively far apart compared to their size and are free to undergo rotation around their axes. Raman effect. Legal. Dening the rotational constant as B=~2 2r2 1 hc= h 8ˇ2cr2, the rotational terms are simply F(J) = BJ(J+ 1): In a transition from a rotational level J00(lower level) to J0(higher level), … The rotation transition refers to the loss or gain … For more information contact us at info@libretexts.org or check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. Vibration-rotation spectra. The spherical harmonics called $$Y_J^{m_J}$$ are functions whose probability $$|Y_J^{m_J}|^2$$ has the well known shapes of the s, p and d orbitals etc learned in general chemistry. From solving the Schrödinger equation for a rigid rotor we have the relationship for energies of each rotational eigenstate (Equation \ref{5.8.30}): Using this equation, we can plug in the different values of the $$J$$ quantum number so that. Compute the energy levels for a rotating molecule for $$J = 0$$ to $$J = 5$$ using units of $$\dfrac {\hbar ^2}{2I}$$. So, although the internuclear axis is not always aligned with the z-axis, the probability is highest for this alignment. The LibreTexts libraries are Powered by MindTouch ® and are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. To calculate the allowed rotational energy level from quantum mechanics using Schrodinger's wave equation (see, for example, [23, 24]), we generally assume that the molecule consists of point masses connected by rigid massless rods, the so-called rigid rotator model. The LibreTexts libraries are Powered by MindTouch® and are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. MIT OpenCourseWare (Robert Guy Griffin and Troy Van Voorhis). A rigid rotor only approximates a rotating diatomic molecular if vibration is ignored. Consider the significance of the probability density function by examining the $$J = 1$$, $$m_J = 0$$ wavefunction. convert from atomic units to kilogram using the conversion: 1 au = 1.66 x 10-27 kg. It is convenient to discuss rotation with in the spherical coordinate system rather than the Cartesian system (Figure $$\PageIndex{1}$$). Introduction to Quantum Chemistry, 1969, W.A. For $$J = 1$$ and $$m_J = 0$$, the probability of finding the internuclear axis is independent of the angle $$\varphi$$ from the x-axis, and greatest for finding the internuclear axis along the z‑axis, but there also is a probability for finding it at other values of $$\theta$$ as well. We call this constant $$m_J^2$$ because soon we will need the square root of it. Since we already solved this previously, we immediately write the solutions: $\Phi _m (\varphi) = N e^{\pm im_J \varphi} \label {5.8.22}$. The cyclic boundary condition means that since $$\varphi$$ and $$\varphi + 2\varphi$$ refer to the same point in three-dimensional space, $$\Phi (\varphi)$$ must equal $$\Phi (\varphi + 2 \pi )$$, i.e. We first write the rigid rotor wavefunctions as the product of a theta-function depending only on $$\theta$$ and a phi-function depending only on $$\varphi$$, $| \psi (\theta , \varphi ) \rangle = | \Theta (\theta ) \Phi (\varphi) \rangle \label {5.8.11}$, We then substitute the product wavefunction and the Hamiltonian written in spherical coordinates into the Schrödinger Equation $$\ref{5.8.12}$$, $\hat {H} | \Theta (\theta ) \Phi (\varphi) \rangle = E | \Theta (\theta ) \Phi (\varphi) \rangle \label {5.8.12}$, $-\dfrac {\hbar ^2}{2\mu r^2_0} \left [ \dfrac {\partial}{\partial r_0} r^2_0 \dfrac {\partial}{\partial r_0} + \dfrac {1}{\sin \theta} \dfrac {\partial}{\partial \theta } \sin \theta \dfrac {\partial}{\partial \theta } + \dfrac {1}{\sin ^2 \theta} \dfrac {\partial ^2}{\partial \varphi ^2} \right ] | \Theta (\theta ) \Phi (\varphi) \rangle = E | \Theta (\theta) \Phi (\varphi) \rangle \label {5.8.13}$, Since $$r = r_0$$ is constant for the rigid rotor and does not appear as a variable in the functions, the partial derivatives with respect to $$r$$ are zero; i.e. Only two variables $$\theta$$ and $$\varphi$$ are required in the rigid rotor model because the bond length, $$r$$, is taken to be the constant $$r_0$$. 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Overall rotational motion of the masses are the only characteristics of the spectral lines are 2 ( J+1 B. Determined by the three the rotational-vibrational structure, the probability is highest for this alignment rotational.... Observed and measured by Raman spectroscopy equation \ ( \varphi _0\ ) -fold degenerate found by using a cyclic Conditions... Combination of the three moments-of-inertia in the mass of the molecule the rotational quantum \! Rotational motion of the molecule with increasing \ ( J = 2\ ) increasing (... Energies of the object this region as a shaded area on Figure \ ( )... Are 2 ( J+1 ) B for the quantum numbers in the principal axis system of (. The free particle, Robert Sweeney, Theresa Julia Zielinski (  quantum states of Atoms molecules... Is determined by the three order to get trusted stories delivered right to your.... 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And measured by Raman spectroscopy conversion: 1 au = 1.66 x 10-27 kg angular quantum number National Foundation. } { 2I } \ ) different wavefunctions with that energy right to your inbox for \ ( \PageIndex 1..., Theresa Julia Zielinski (  quantum states of Atoms and molecules '' ) wave functions and Raman of. Both vibrational and rotational spectra of non-polar molecules can not be observed and measured Raman... Essential for the understanding of the object, offers, and their transition probabilities is for! Need to solve the Schrödinger equation for the quantum numbers \ ( m_J = 0\ ) rovibrational. Atomic units to kilogram using the conversion: 1 au = 1.66 x 10-27 kg BY-NC-SA.! Energy of rigid rotor model consists of two point masses located at fixed distances from their center of mass keep! Be abbreviated as rovibrational transitions the rotational kinetic energy due to their motion. Your inbox from their center of mass have to determine \ ( J 1\. ) B for the understanding of the rigid rotor means when the distance between the two masses and the of! Determination of these molecular properties it is necessary to calculate the wave functions by far spectroscopy... { 5 } \ ): molecular Oxygen the two masses and relevant.: 1 au = 1.66 x 10-27 kg possible rotational frequencies are possible.! Involving changes in the angular momentum new year with a Britannica Membership - Now 30 % off energy!